Dominican Republic Slavery

Afro-Dominicans: A Rich Cultural Tapestry

Introduction

Afro-Dominicans, also known as African-Dominicans or Black Dominicans, constitute a vibrant segment of the Dominican Republic’s population. Their roots trace back to Black African ancestry, and they play a significant role in shaping the country’s diverse cultural landscape. This article sheds light on their history, demographic representation, and cultural contributions.

Historical Origins

The presence of Black Africans in the Dominican Republic can be traced back to the island’s colonial history. Early European colonists brought individuals from Spain and Portugal, known as Ladinos, to work as indentured laborers. However, as the Spanish Crown prohibited the enslavement of Native populations through the Laws of Burgos, a new chapter unfolded. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, the demand for labor led to the importation of African slaves from West and Central Africa.

Over time, these African individuals intertwined their heritage with that of Europeans, Mestizos, and Native populations, giving rise to a unique triracial Creole culture. This rich cultural fusion became an integral part of the Dominican identity.

Demographics and Migration Waves

As the sugar industry thrived, so did the importation of African slaves. However, with the decline of this industry, the influx of slaves decreased. In the 19th and 20th centuries, a new wave of Black immigrants arrived from the French and British West Indies, as well as the United States. They settled in coastal regions, further enriching the Black population’s diversity.

Today, Afro-Dominicans can be found throughout the country, from coastal areas like San Cristobal and San Pedro de Macoris to inland regions such as Cotui and Monteplata. Notably, the southeast and border regions boast the highest concentrations of Black inhabitants, while the central Cibao region has the lowest.

Demographic Challenges and Data

Obtaining precise demographic data regarding Afro-Dominicans presents challenges. The National Office of Statistics (ONE) has not released racial data since 1960. However, the Central Electoral Board collected racial data until 2014. In the 1996 electoral roll, the “black” population was recorded at 4.13%, with “mulatto” at 2.3% among adults. The 1960 population census, the last to include racial queries, indicated a 10.9% Black population. A 2011 Latinobarómetro survey reported that 26% of respondents identified themselves as Black.

Conclusion

Afro-Dominicans, with their rich historical roots, have contributed significantly to the cultural diversity and heritage of the Dominican Republic. While challenges exist in accurately quantifying their demographic representation, their influence and presence are undeniable. The legacy of Afro-Dominicans continues to be celebrated and recognized as an integral part of the nation’s identity.

The History

The Birth of Afro-Dominican Culture: 16th – 18th Century

Introduction

The 16th to 18th centuries marked a transformative period in the Dominican Republic’s history, particularly concerning the emergence of Afro-Dominican culture. This era witnessed significant developments, including the introduction of enslaved Africans, slave revolts, and the shaping of a diverse cultural landscape. This article delves into these historical facets.

Enslaved Africans in Santo Domingo

In 1502 or 1503, the Spanish Crown yielded to colonists’ demands for enslaved Africans. By this time, the Santo Domingo colony, the sole European possession in the Americas, had already inflicted severe losses on the indigenous Taino, Lucayan (Arawaks), and Kalinga (Caribs) populations. A decade of exploitation and devastating plagues had decimated these indigenous groups to levels even the Spaniards considered precarious.

The colonial administration, under Christopher Columbus, initiated the first European slave trade on the western Atlantic side. Raids, conducted under the pretext of pacification and evangelization of neighboring islands, brought enslaved Lucayos from the Bahamas and Kalingas from the eastern islands to the Hispaniola colony. These war captives became the initial enslaved foreign labor force on the island, known as Quisqueya, one of its indigenous names.

As the demand for labor in mines and plantations surged, so did the need for coerced workers. The colonization expanded to Puerto Rico, and the Crown granted permission to purchase enslaved Africans. Ferdinand I of Aragon, while less restrained by religious considerations, remained cautious about potential Conquistador-owned kingdoms and slave uprisings in the colonies.

The first enslaved Africans who arrived at the Ozama River were not Piezas de Indias purchased from Portuguese traders but a select group of seasoned Black Ladinos. They formed their confraternities as early as 1502, establishing themselves as the first community of the African diaspora in the Americas. However, the profit from this trade was meant to remain within Ferdinand’s kingdom.

Slave Revolts and Maroon Communities

In 1521, a major slave rebellion erupted, led by 20 Senegalese Muslims of Wolof origin, in a sugar factory east of the Santo Domingo colony. Many insurgents sought refuge in the mountains, establishing the first autonomous African Maroon community in the Americas. This rebellion’s success paved the way for subsequent slave revolts, with leaders like Sebastían Lemba emerging.

Remarkably, some of the leaders were already baptized Christians, including Juan Vaquero, Diego de Guzmán, and Diego del Campo. As these revolts and escapes continued, African communities emerged across the island’s southwest, north, and east. The first African ex-slave communities in western Hispaniola were Spanish administered until 1697, when they were sold to France and became Saint-Domingue, modern-day Haiti.

Impact on Spanish Colonization

The continuous escape of Africans mixed with the Taíno population, creating complex cultural blends. Spanish authorities, alarmed by Maroon bands, organized large armed groups to safeguard themselves outside plantations. These Maroons inhabited mountainous regions, making them elusive.

With the discovery of precious metals in South America, the Spanish abandoned Hispaniola in pursuit of wealth elsewhere. This shift also led to the end of the slave trade to the island, resulting in economic hardship.

However, during this period, enslaved Africans played a vital role in constructing key structures, including a cathedral, the oldest in the Americas, a monastery, the first hospital, the Alcázar de Colón, and the Puerta de las Lamentaciones (Gate of Mercy). In the 1540s, they built a defensive wall to protect the city from pirates.

Resurgence of the Slave Trade and Cultural Evolution

Post-1700, as new Spanish colonists arrived, the Atlantic slave trade resumed. A shift from sugar to livestock reduced the significance of racial and caste divisions. Consequently, a blend of Spanish, African, and indigenous cultures laid the foundation for the Dominican national identity.

In 1777, the colony’s estimated population reached 400,000, comprising Europeans, Criollos, Africans, mestizos, zambos, and mulattos. This cultural mosaic would become a defining aspect of Dominican heritage.

Conclusion

The 16th to 18th centuries in the Dominican Republic were characterized by the introduction of enslaved Africans, slave revolts, and the amalgamation of diverse cultures. Despite the challenges and hardships, this era played a pivotal role in shaping the unique Afro-Dominican culture that remains an integral part of the nation’s identity.

The Abolition of Slavery in Santo Domingo: A Historical Overview

Introduction

The late 18th century marked a period of significant change in Santo Domingo, particularly regarding the abolition of slavery. Fugitive African slaves, inspired by the French Revolution, played a crucial role in these developments, leading to a complex series of events that reshaped the region’s history.

The Flight of Fugitive African Slaves

Towards the end of the 18th century, African slaves from Saint-Domingue, the western French colony of the island, fled eastward to Santo Domingo. They formed communities like San Lorenzo de Los Mina, now part of the city of Santo Domingo. Fugitives also arrived from various other parts of the West Indies, particularly the Lesser Antilles.

Inspiration from the French Revolution

In the late 1780s, free people of color on the island found inspiration in the ideals of the French Revolution. They sought to expand their rights and enlisted enslaved Africans in their cause. This marked the beginning of a movement to challenge the prevailing systems of oppression.

Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian Revolution

In 1792, the Haitian revolutionary leader Toussaint Louverture played a pivotal role in forging a formal alliance between the black rebellion and the Spanish against France. Toussaint established fortified posts between rebel and colonial territories. While initially not directly involved in the early stages of the rebellion, he later committed to the complete abolition of slavery, influenced by the language of freedom and equality associated with the French Revolution.

Emancipation Proclaimed

In February 1794, the French revolutionary government officially proclaimed the abolition of slavery, a move aimed at gaining the support of black troops. Toussaint, who had been in diplomatic contact with French generals, shifted his allegiance from the Spanish to the French when this decision became known in Saint-Domingue. He rallied his troops to support the French cause.

Temporary Abolition and Subsequent Reestablishment

In 1801, Toussaint Louverture abolished slavery in the eastern region of Santo Domingo, freeing approximately 40,000 enslaved individuals. This move led many planters in that area to flee to Cuba and Puerto Rico. However, in 1809, when the Spanish regained control of the region, slavery was reestablished.

Simultaneously, French governor Ferrand imported a second group of Haitian slaves to build the French colonial enclave Puerto Napoleon (Samana). He also ordered the seizure of black children to be sold into slavery.

Dessalines and the Invasion of Santo Domingo

In response to Ferrand’s intention to restore slavery, Haiti’s self-proclaimed emperor, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, ordered an invasion of Santo Domingo in February 1805. While Dessalines managed to reach the capital, he was thwarted by the defensive wall constructed by Dominican slaves in the 1540s. Unable to lay siege to the capital, Dessalines retreated, leaving a trail of destruction in his wake. His actions, marked by atrocities regardless of race or color, became known as the Beheadings of Moca.

Slavery Abolished and Reinstated

Slavery was again abolished in 1822 by the mulatto Haitian president Jean-Pierre Boyer, during the Haitian unification of Hispaniola. However, Boyer implemented a system of indentured servitude known as the Code Rural on the Black Haitian majority.

In 1824, African American freed people began to arrive under the Haitian administration, benefiting from Boyer’s pro-African immigration policy. They became known as the Samaná Americans and settled in various regions.

The Cocolos and Dominican Nationalism

Between the late 19th and early 20th centuries, black laborers from the British West Indies arrived to work in the sugar plantations on the eastern side of the island. Their descendants are known as Cocolos. In 1838, Dominican nationalists established the Trinitario movement, contributing to the nation’s evolving identity.

Conclusion

The abolition of slavery in Santo Domingo was a complex process, influenced by the Haitian Revolution, the French Revolution, and the actions of key figures like Toussaint Louverture and Jean-Jacques Dessalines. These events shaped the island’s history and laid the groundwork for the abolition of slavery, though the journey was marked by interruptions and challenges.

20th Century Demographics and Cultural Impact in the Dominican Republic

Census and Population Distribution (1920):

In 1920, during the United States’ military occupation of the Dominican Republic, a census was conducted, dividing the country into 12 provinces and 63 cities and towns. Notable findings from this census included:

• Santo Domingo province had the highest population with 146,652 inhabitants.
• Samaná province had the lowest population with 16,915 inhabitants.
• Santiago was the most populated city with 72,150 inhabitants, followed by La Vega with 58,466, and Santo Domingo, the capital, with 45,007 inhabitants.
• El Jovero (now Miches) was the least populated city, with only 1,692 inhabitants.

Ethnic Diversity:

The Dominican Republic’s population at that time was ethnically diverse, consisting mainly of people of Spanish descent with varying degrees of racial admixture. The population included:

• Pure white individuals.
• Those of mixed race, blending Spanish, African, and indigenous heritage.
• People of mixed white, Indian, and African ancestry.
• A significant presence of black individuals, particularly along the coast and on plantations, with many originating from Turks Islands, the Bahamas, Jamaica, and other West Indies islands.
• The Dominican Republic was characterized as a “colored” nation, but with lighter skin tones compared to many other West Indian countries.

Provincial and Town Demographics:

• The province with the highest proportion of black residents was San Pedro de Macorís, with 40% of its population being black, including many of foreign origin.
• Immigrants were prevalent in Monte Cristi and San Pedro de Macorís, with 11,256 and 10,145 foreigners, primarily from Haiti.
• Foreigners represented 26.3% of the population in San Pedro de Macorís and 16.8% in Monte Cristi.
• Towns with the highest proportions of black residents included Restauración (74%), La Victoria, and Villa Mella. In contrast, Monción had only 4% black residents, and Constanza, Altamira, and Jarabacoa each had 8%.
• Constanza and Monción had the highest proportions of mestizo residents, at 73% and 71%, respectively.
• Pimentel had the highest proportion of white residents at 73%, followed by Castillo, Gaspar Hernández, La Peña, Villa Rivas, San José de las Matas, Jánico, Esperanza, Baní, and Santiago.

Origins of the Enslaved Africans:

The slave trade brought individuals from various African ethnic groups to colonial Santo Domingo. Some of the ethnic groups included Wolof, Aja (also known as Ararás), Ambundu, Bran, Fulbe, Kalabari, Terranova, Zape, Bambara, and Biafada.

• Wolof individuals were kidnapped from Senegal in the 16th century, and this practice was prohibited after their rebellion in 1522.
• Ajas were typically taken from Whydah, Benin.
• Other African origins included the Kingdom of Ndongo (north Angola), Brong-Ahafo Region (Ghana), Nigeria (Calabar), Sierra Leone, and Guinea-Bissau.

Demographic Changes Over Time:

• The 1920 Census reported 8,305 West Indians (Cocolos) born abroad and 28,258 Haitians.
• The 1935 Census recorded nearly 9,272 West Indians and 52,657 Haitians.
• The Haitian population decreased to 18,772 in the 1950 Census, partly due to the Parsley Massacre.

Geographic Distribution of Ethnic Groups:

• African ancestry was more prevalent in eastern areas such as San Pedro de Macorís, La Romana, the Samaná Peninsula, and along the Haitian border.
• African ancestry was less prevalent in the Cibao Valley, Central Sierra region, El Seibo, La Altagracia provinces, and the western part of the National District.
• Historical influences and migrations shaped the distribution of ethnic groups across different regions.

Cultural Contributions of African Heritage:

• African cultural remnants were evident in various aspects of Dominican culture, including music, dance, religious beliefs, cuisine, economy, entertainment, motor habits, and language.
• Music and dance, such as the Música de palos, sarandunga, Música de Gagá, Baile de Palos, and Música de Congos, had significant African influences.
• Traditional Dominican instruments like los palos, balsié, gallumba, and tambora were part of this cultural heritage.
• The Dominican Republic’s national dance, merengue, also had African and Spanish influences.

Fashion, Religion, Institutions, and Cuisine:

• Fashion, religion, institutions, and cuisine in the Dominican Republic also bore African influences, contributing to the rich tapestry of the nation’s cultural heritage.
• The Afro-Dominican community played a significant role in shaping these cultural elements.

Haitian Diaspora and Historical Tensions:

• Haiti, historically facing more significant economic challenges than the Dominican Republic, witnessed a substantial portion of its population migrating to the Dominican Republic in search of employment opportunities.
• The relationship between the two countries has been marked by historical tensions, including border disputes, territorial exchanges, and the Parsley Massacre of 1937.
• Despite these challenges, the two nations shared a complex history shaped by migration, economic interactions, and diplomatic efforts.

Notable Individuals from the Dominican Republic

Sports:

1. Alejandro Balde – Professional footballer.
2. Alberto Baldé – Accomplished footballer.
3. Erick Japa – Renowned footballer.
4. Adrian Beltre – Former MLB baseball player.
5. Robinson Canó – Prominent MLB baseball player.
6. Vladimir Guerrero – Retired MLB baseball player.
7. Al Horford – NBA basketball player.
8. Pedro Martinez – Former MLB baseball player.
9. Fernando Rodney – Retired MLB baseball player.
10. Ronaldo Vásquez – Notable footballer.
11. Dorny Romero – Respected footballer.
12. Joao Urbáez – Talented footballer.
13. Junior Firpo – Skillful footballer.
14. Luiyi de Lucas – Accomplished footballer.
15. Marco Luciano – Rising MLB baseball player.
16. Peter González – Prominent footballer.

Arts and Entertainment:

1. Josefina Báez – Acclaimed actress.
2. Joan Guzman – Former professional boxer.
3. Lineisy Montero – Successful model.
4. Monkey Black – Influential rapper.
5. Arlenis Sosa – Renowned model.
6. Johnny Ventura – Musician and politician.
7. Fausto Rey – Notable singer.
8. El Canario – Celebrated singer.
9. Omega – Prominent singer.

Historical and Political Figures:

1. Ulises Heureaux – Former president of the Dominican Republic.
2. José Joaquín Puello – Respected general and government minister.
3. Mamá Tingó – Activist for social causes.

Baseball Legends:

1. David Ortiz – Retired MLB baseball player.
2. Sammy Sosa – Former MLB baseball player.
3. Alfonso Soriano – Former MLB baseball player.

Slave Rebellion Leader:

1. Sebastián Lemba – Leader of a significant slave rebellion.

This list showcases the diverse talent and historical significance of individuals hailing from the Dominican Republic, spanning sports, arts, politics, and social activism.